Plant installations must be installed separately

Plant installations must be installed separately from the copper cables to prevent them from being crushed and broken. Sometimes they hang carefully below the copper cable trays or are introduced into corrugated subducts. Using the corrugated subducts can save installation time since the duct (which can be purchased with tape to pull and remove the already incorporated cable), can be installed quickly without fear of causing damage and, then, allows to pull to remove the cable from Fiber optic quickly and easily. In some installations, fiber optic cables must be installed inside underground conduits, which requires care to minimize the possibility of bending the cable, allows the cable to be extracted by applying an intermediate force and, thus, to limit the force made in the extraction, or use lubricants for fiber optic cables.

The hardware that is needed for the installation is chosen according to the place where the termination of the cables will take place. In internal plant installations, connections usually point to point and no splices are made. Whenever possible, space for an extensive radius should be allowed in the connection panels or in the wall-mounted termination boxes to minimize fiber stress. You must choose hardware that is easy to access to move, add or modify, but that your access can be blocked to prevent intruders.
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In internal plant installations, it is worth considering a pre-determined system. In these installations, backbone cables are used that terminate in multimode fiber connectors and pre-terminated connection panel modules. If the design of the building is adequate, the cable manufacturer can work together with you to create a “plug and play” fiber optic system that does not need a local termination and whose cost can be very competitive compared to a system of optical fiber finished in the field.

The choice of transmission equipment

The choice of transmission equipment becomes more complicated in terms of data and closed-circuit television (CCTV), since the applications are very varied and there are no regulation standards. In addition, the equipment may not be available in fiber optic transmission options, which is why it is necessary to use devices called media converters to convert the copper ports to the fiber ports.

In computer networks, the Ethernet standards, created by the 802.3 committees of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), are completely uniform. It is possible to read the standards and determine, for each of the equipment options, how are the transmission levels across the different types of fiber and, thus, choose the one that suits your needs.
Most network hardware, such as switches or routers, is available on optional fiber-optic interfaces, but computers usually incorporate only copper UTP cable interfaces that require media converters. When searching the Internet for “fiber optic media converters” many sources will appear that information about these economic devices. Media converters also allow you to choose the appropriate transmission media for customer installation; you can use single-mode or multimode fiber and even transceivers options for the distance the link should cover.
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CCTV is a similar installation. More and more cameras incorporate fiber interfaces because many CCTV systems are located, for example, in large buildings, at airports or in areas where distances exceed the capabilities of coaxial cable transmission. Otherwise, there are video media converters, which the same vendors that sell Ethernet media converters usually have available and that, in addition to being economical, are ready to use. We insist, converters must be chosen that meet the requirements of the link established in the client installation, which, in the case of video, not only incorporates the ability to allow distances but also functions: some video links carry control signals to the camera to pan, zoom in or out of the image and move the camera vertically, in addition to returning the recording to a previous location.

There is a lot of information on the OTDR screen.

CH8-6
There is a lot of information on the OTDR screen. The slope of the fiber plot shows the fiber attenuation coefficient (loss by length) and is calibrated in dB / km by the OTDR. The fall in the graphical trace of the fiber along the connector allows the loss in dB to be measured. The peak produced by the reflectance of a mechanical connector or joint can also be measured. While some users measure the point-to-point loss of a fiber optic cable network with an OTDR,

Notice the large initial pulse in the OTDR plot shown in the graph above. That is produced by the high power test pulse that is reflected in the OTDR connector and overloads the OTDR receiver. Receiver recovery causes the "dead zone" near the OTDR. In order to avoid problems caused by the dead zone, it is necessary to always use a launch cable of sufficient length when testing the cables.

Connectors and splices are called "events" in OTDR jargon. Both should show a loss, but the connectors and mechanical splices will also show a reflection peak so that you can thus distinguish them from fusion splices. In addition, the height of that peak will indicate the amount of reflection in the event, unless it is so large that it saturates the OTDR receiver. The top of the peak will be flat and will have a tail at the end, which will indicate that the receiver was overloaded. The peak width shows the distance resolution of the OTDR or how close it can detect events.
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OTDRs also detect cable problems caused during installation. If a fiber is broken, the fiber end will appear much shorter than the cable or a splice with high loss in the wrong place. If excessive tension is placed on the cable due to folds or a radius of curvature that is too tight, it will resemble a splice in the wrong place. There is no better help in detecting and solving problems with an OTDR than having good documentation, so that you know what the OTDR should be showing at the points along the fiber.

Visual inspection of connector by microscope

Fiber optic inspection microscopes are used to inspect connectors, in order to confirm that polishing is adequate and to find faults such as scratches, polishing defects and dirt. They can be used both to verify the quality of the finishing procedure and to diagnose problems. A well-made connector has a smooth, polished and scratch-free finish, and the fiber shows no signs of cracks, splinters or areas where the fiber is protruding from the end of the splint or inward.

The increase to visualize the connectors can be of a power of 30 to 400, but it is better to use an average increase. If the increase is very low, fundamental details may not be visible. Performing the inspection with a very large magnification can lead to the person who sees through the microscope being too critical, and rejects good connectors. Multimode connectors should use increases in the 100-200X range and single-mode fiber may use a larger increase, up to 400X. A better solution is to use a medium magnification, but inspect the connector in three ways:

   When viewing directly, the fiber and the hole of the splint can be visualized, and determine if it is of a suitable size, if the fiber is centered in the hole and if the appropriate amount of adhesive has been applied. However, with this form, only the largest scratches are visible. Adding light transmitted through the core will make the cracks visible at the end of the fiber, caused by pressure or heat during the polishing process.

    If you see the end of the connector from a certain angle, while lighting it from approximately the same angle on the opposite side or if you use lighting from a smaller angle and go directly, you will get the best inspection for polishing quality and possible scratches. The shadow effect produced by angular vision or illumination increases the contrast of the scratches against the smooth and mirrored polished surface of the glass.

    However, you must be careful when inspecting the connectors. Sometimes it tends to be too critical, especially if large increases are used. In general, only defects on the fiber core are considered problems. The glass chips around the outer part of the cladding are not unusual and will have no effect on the ability of the connector to couple light in the core of multimode fibers. Also, scratches that are only in the cladding should not cause any loss problem.

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The best microscopes allow you to inspect the connector from different angles, either by tilting the connector or allowing angular illumination to get the best view of what is happening. Verify that the microscope has an easy-to-use adapter to connect the connectors of interest to the microscope.

The video output microscopes that are now available allow you to get an easier view of the connector's end face, and some even have software that analyzes the finish. Although they are much more expensive than normal optical microscopes, they facilitate inspection and greatly increase productivity.

It is important that you remember to verify that the cable has no power before looking at it under the microscope, in order to protect your eyes. The microscope will concentrate all energy that exists in the fiber and focus it on your eye with potentially dangerous results. Some microscopes have filters to stop the infrared radiation of the transmitters in order to minimize this problem.

Indications for field terminations

This method has good and bad aspects. Manufacturing is complex, so these connectors are expensive, almost ten times more than the adhesive / polishing type, since they require careful manufacturing. A part of the extra cost can be compensated with the lower labor costs in your installation. To have less losses, you must make a good cut in the fiber in which the termination is being made, since the cutting of the fiber is an important factor in the losses of a mechanical splice. It is recommended to use a precision cutter such as those used with fiber optic fusers, Even if you do everything correctly, the loss will be slightly higher since you will have the loss of the connection plus the loss by splicing on each connector. The best way to complete the termination is to verify the loss of the splice with a visual fault locator and "twist" as is done with the mechanical splices.


Indications for field terminations

Here are some issues to remember when installing field connectors. If you follow these guidelines, you will save time, money and avoid frustration.


With whatever you do, always follow the manufacturer's instructions about terminations carefully.

Choose the connector carefully and if it is any other type than epoxy or polished, rinse it with the customer. Some customers have strong opinions about the types or brands of connectors used in their work.
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NEVER carry a new type of connector to install in the field until you have installed enough in the office or in the laboratory to be sure that you can install them successfully. This is not the place to conduct experiments or learn.   One of the most important cost factors in the installation of connectors is its performance: how many pass the tests. The most important factor in field termination is the installer's experience.

Reflectance or loss of optical return of the connector

The reflectance or loss of optical return of the connector (also called "return reflection") is the amount of light that is reflected in the fiber towards the light-emitting source as a result of light reflections outside the surface interface polished connector end and air. It is called Fresnel reflection and is caused by the light that is transmitted and undergoes changes in the index of refraction at the interface between the fiber (n = 1.5) and the air (n = 1). Reflectance is the main
problem with connectors, but it can also affect mechanical splices that contain an index equalizer gel
to avoid it.

The reflectance is a component of the loss per connection and represents a loss of 0.3 dB for connectors that have no contact or have space between them, in the case where two fibers do not touch.

Reducing reflectance to the maximum is necessary to obtain maximum performance from high-speed fiber-based single-mode fiber-based systems based on lasers and, in particular, cable television modulated amplitude signals. In multimode fiber systems, reflections are not a problem but may contribute to background noise in the fiber.
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As reflectance is usually a problem in single-mode fiber systems, manufacturers focused on solving the problem of components of this type of fiber; however, multimode fiber connectors also benefit as the reduction in reflectance also implies a reduction in optical loss. Several strategies were used to reduce the reflectance, mainly by means of a convex polishing of the physical contact (PC) at the end of the splint of the connector, which reduces Fresnel's reflection. The technique involves polishing the surface of the end of the fiber to achieve a convex surface or, even better, polishing in the form of a soft angle (angled physical contact or APC) to prevent reflectance.

The reverse current (in the absence of light) must be very small

The reverse current (in the absence of light) must be very small, in order to detect very weak optical signals (high sensitivity).
Fast response (high bandwidth).

The noise level generated by the device itself must be minimal.
There are two types of detectors: PIN photodiodes and APD avalanche.
PIN detectors: Its name comes from the fact that they are composed of a PN junction and between that junction, a new zone of intrinsic material (I) is inserted, which improves the efficiency of the detector. It is mainly used in systems that allow easy discrimination between possible light levels and over short distances.
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APD detectors: Avalanche photodiodes are photodetectors that show, applying a high reverse voltage, an internal effect of current gain (approximately 100), due to impact ionization (avalanche effect). The mechanism of these detectors consists of launching an electron at high speed (with sufficient energy), against an atom so that it is able to tear out another electron.
These detectors can be classified into three types:
Silicon: they have a low noise level and a performance of up to 90% working in the first window. They require a high supply voltage (200-300  V ).
Germanium: suitable for working with wavelengths between 1000 and 1300 nm and with a yield of 70%.
Function process

Two important issues to consider when working with fiber

Safety when working with fiber optics

Some people think that the major concern in fiber optic installations is eye damage when working with the laser. The reality is that lasers that perform perforations on metal or remove warts from the fingers have little relation to the typical fiber optic installation. The optical sources that are used in the optical fiber, generally have much lower power levels (the exception is the high-power telecommunications systems of dense wavelength division multiplexing (DWDM) or cable television). Of course, you should always be careful with your eyes, especially when using a fiber-optic microscope that can concentrate all the light of fiber in your eye.

The real safety problem is always related to the small glass residues that remain when cutting the ends of the fibers that have already been finished or spliced. These wastes or fiber fragments are very dangerous! The cut ends are extremely sharp and can easily penetrate your skin. If they get into your eyes, they are very difficult to remove. Don't even think about what happens if you ingest any. Always wear safety glasses when working with fiber and dispose of fiber waste carefully.

Whenever you work with fiber, follow the rules detailed below.

1. Always wear safety glasses to protect your eyes from fiber debris.

2. Dispose of all-fiber remains properly. Always use a properly labeled container for later disposal and work on a black cloth so that the glass remains are more easily located.

3. Do not throw them on the floor where they can stick to carpets or shoes and move to any other place,

4. Do not eat food or drink near the work area.

The fiber optic splicing and termination processes involve the use of chemical adhesives and cleaners. Follow the instructions for use (detailed in the substance safety data sheet - MSDS) carefully. Remember that even isopropyl alcohol, used as a simple cleaning product, is flammable.

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Zero dirt tolerance

When we work with fiber optics, dirt tolerance is practically zero. The particles present in the air are about the size of the core of single-mode fiber - they absorb a lot of light and can scratch the connectors if they are not removed! Dirt on the connectors is the biggest cause of scratches on the polished connectors, and high loss measurements!

1. Try to work in a clean area. Avoid working near heating system outlets, as these eliminate dust.

2. Always use dust caps on connectors, threaded splice connectors, connection panels or any other material with which you are going to make a connection.

3. Use special fiber optic cleaners or clothes that do not leave lint residue, and isopropyl alcohol to clean the connectors.

4. The splints of the connectors and cables used for the tests will become dirty by discarding the material from the alignment sleeve in the splice bushing, which will create an attenuator. You will see how the front edge of the connector splint turns black! Use metal or ceramic alignment sleeves for testing only.

Development of a cable of 3000 fibers, using tapes of 16 fibers.

Development of a cable of 3000 fibers, using tapes of 16 fibers.

The design and characteristics of cables with 3000 optical fibers are described. In a design tape from 16 fibers that can be used are used. easily divided into 4 types of 4 fibers or 2 of 8. Each. Field tests of cables with diameters of 44 and 46 mm showed good performance. The design of a device for splicing by the method of fusion and separation of fiber tapes is presented. The aim of this proposal is to: increase the number of fibers in the cable and reduce the connection time of the cables.

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Optical LZ with AC delayed.

Optical LZ with altern. delayed. In the 1st embodiment, an optical circulator with 4 ports is used, one of which is used as an input, others as an output, and the optical fibers with Bragg reflector arrays with a linearly varying period are attached to the remaining 2, and the nature change in the period in both cases is the opposite to compensate for variance. In the 2nd case, a communication device with radiation separation according to the polarization state is connected to the port of the optical circulator, and 2 segments of the optical fiber with arrays of Bragg reflectors with ac are connected to the outputs of the communication device. period. In the 3rd case, quarter-wave plates are located at the input of the optical fiber segments. In each case, a delay change is made using linear fiber expansion.


Linear control of the spectral characteristics of components with wavelength selection.

The design of linearly tunable fiber-film components whose characteristics depend on the wavelength of the incoming radiation is considered. The design includes a linearly broadened thin-film optical waveguide with a high refractive index associated with a single-mode fiber coupler. The results of the theory are given. and experiment. studies of linear adjustment of spectral characteristics (branch power, resonance position and polarization of the light emerging from the fiber). Almost linear control has been achieved.

Board combining modules for two-way optical systems.

The concept of an optical module combining the board for an optical system for two-way communication in the range of 850 nm is proposed. The board contains optical transceivers, the content of the PD grating and semiconductor lasers with vertical resonators. In addition, on the board, there are devices for deflecting optical rays of a holographic type using polymer optical waveguides in which the total internal reflection of the propagating radiation occurs. Noise characteristics and factors affecting the orientation of the rays are considered. Device m b. used as part of communication systems with a data transfer rate of 2.5 Gbps.

Parallel processors for processing optical signals using optoelectronic VLSI.
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The problem of using semiconductor VLSI in optical information processing devices, in particular in optical computers, is considered. It is shown that in order to overcome the difficulties caused by the limited bandwidth and low speed, it is recommended to use parallel VLSI arrays connected with each other using three-dimensional optical interconnects. Interconnects are created on the basis of two-dimensional structures. As an example of an optical signal processing device, a binary memory of a neural type is mentioned. It is shown that when creating associative memory devices based on optoelectronic devices, memory parameters m are increased several dozen times. Shows examples of optoelectronic VLSI.

channels transmission with spectral multiplexing over 85 km std. single-mode fiber.

The results of the successful operation of 35 channels with a transmission rate of 40 Gbit / s in each (with a total aggregate bandwidth of 1.4 Tbit / s) for 85 km per standard are presented. single-mode optical fiber. For error-free transmission, the dispersion compensation method was used. The experimental scheme is presented. installation and line characteristics. Data was transmitted in a format without returning to zero. For amplification, an optical amplifier with an erbium-doped optical fiber with an equalized coefficient was used. gain, and to compensate for dispersion - dispersion compensating fiber.

300 km transmission of 2.5 Gbit / s channels with a dense arrangement and direct modulation, demultiplexed using a demultiplexer on curved diffraction gratings.

The results of the experiment are presented. transmitting information on 4 channels with spectral multiplexing and demultiplexing 4 lasers with distributed OS and direct modulation at a speed of 2.5 Gbit / s per channel with a very narrow distance between the channels (~ 50 GHz) over a distance of> 300 km. The experiment was conducted on a test bench with a single-span recirculation loop built on an optical fiber with shifted dispersion. The circuit uses a bent diffraction grating demultiplexer.

Backbone data transmission technologies

Ways of solving problems generated by the rapid growth of data volumes transmitted over fiber optic links are considered. Two ways to solve this problem are revealed: the efficient use of bandwidth; increasing the capacity of the existing cable infrastructure through the use of modern optical technologies. The first method involves the construction and operation of intelligent ATM networks, which allow telecom operators to increase profitability due to new types of telecommunication services provided by the multiservice network and significantly reduce the cost of using trunk communication channels. The second way involves the use of DWDM technology. The advantages and disadvantages of each of these methods of solving the problem are considered.

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Evaluation of a fully optical 2 R regenerator at a transmission rate of 2.5 Gbit / s at 3600 km using only standard fiber.

Experiment proposed. fiber optic installation built on std. optical fiber without dispersion control circuits. A fully optical 2 R regenerator included in a 400 km regeneration loop allows transmitting at a speed of 2.5 Gbit / s over a distance of > 3600 km in a line with 100 km spacing of fiber amplifiers .

Fiber Optic Disposal of fragments.

Disposal of fragments.

Fragments of fiber must be disposed of properly. For this, the waste must be collected in special containers such as small lockable bottles.

The fragments are usually thrown into the bin, on which a plastic bag should be worn. It is also necessary to make a clear inscription on the bucket: “Contains glass fragments”. When emptying the bucket, do not squeeze the bag, place it in another bag, and tie it.

Disposal of fiber splinters is the responsibility of the cable contractor and must be included in the work order, invoice, or contract. Fragments of fiber should never be thrown under raised floors, where unsuspecting workers could injure themselves in the future.

Even with all the precautions, everyone who deals with optical fiber is not safe from getting a finger in. Most often this happens during the installation of connectors or splicing cables when the sheath is removed from the fiber. What should be done in this case? To remove fragments from under the skin “you need Teflon-coated tweezers. It has a more resilient surface than ordinary steel tweezers. The latter can break a splinter, leaving part of it under the skin.

Workplace chemicals.

As in many other industries, various chemicals are used in working with fiber optics. Some cables use water repellent gels; in many connectors, the fibers are fixed using epoxy adhesive with ultraviolet, anaerobic, or thermal cure; in mechanical connectors to match the refractive indices, these or those liquids and gels are placed; the optical fiber is cleaned with alcohol or another solvent. In addition, it is necessary to pull the cable through the cable channels using various lubricants.

When sold, all of these materials must be accompanied by a Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS). As part of the “right to knowledge” law, MSDS is derived from the Hazard Communication Standard, developed by the US Department of Labor Safety and Health Administration, issued in 1985.

MSDS includes detailed information about the manufacturer of the drug; about dangerous substances contained in it; about physical properties, flammability and explosiveness; health hazards; data on its ability to react with other substances; about the unpacking and use procedures, as well as about all special protective measures and precautions that must be observed when using this drug.

When ordering chemicals or materials containing chemicals, always require MSDS instructions. In addition, these instructions should be at hand and when working in the field.

In places of work with optical fiber should be prohibited from eating and drinking. It is best to do this in specially designated places and remember to always wash your hands after handling fiber and chemicals.
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Despite the great number of safety rules at the workplace, they are effective only when they are strictly observed. To create a security problem, one person is enough, and only one person is able to prevent it.

FOCL scope and connection technologies

The length of the FOCL communication lines can reach hundreds of kilometers (for example, when building communications between cities), while the standard length of optical fibers is several kilometers (including because working with too long lengths is in some cases inconvenient). Thus, when constructing the route, it is necessary to solve the problem of the splicing of individual optical fibers.

There are two types of connections: detachable and one-piece. In the first case, optical connectors are used for the connection (this is associated with additional financial costs, and, in addition, with a large number of intermediate detachable connections, optical losses increase).

For permanent connection of local sections (installation of routes), mechanical connectors, adhesive splicing, and fiber bonding are used. In the latter case, the apparatus for welding optical fibers are used. Preference for a particular method is given taking into account the purpose and conditions of use of optics.

The most common is gluing technology, for which special equipment and tools are used and which includes several technological operations.

In particular, before connecting, the optical cables undergo preliminary preparation: in the places of future connections, the protective coating and excess fiber are removed (the prepared section is cleaned of the hydrophobic composition). For reliable fixation of the fiber in the connector (connector), epoxy glue is used, which fills the internal space of the connector (it is inserted into the connector housing using a syringe or dispenser). To harden and dry the glue, a special oven is used that can create a temperature of 100 degrees. FROM.

After the adhesive has hardened, the excess fiber is removed, and the connector tip is ground and polished (chip quality is of utmost importance). To ensure high accuracy, the performance of these works is controlled using a 200-fold microscope Polishing can be done manually or using a polished machine.

The highest quality connection with minimal loss provides fiber welding. This method is used to create high-speed fiber-optic links. During welding, the ends of the fiber are melted; for this, a gas burner, electric charge or laser radiation can be used as a source of thermal energy.

Each of the methods has its advantages. Laser welding due to the absence of impurities allows obtaining the purest compounds. For strong welding of multimode fibers, gas torches are usually used. The most common are electric welding, which provides high speed and quality of work. The melting time of various types of bulk fibers is different.

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For welding, special tools and expensive welding equipment are used - automatic or semi-automatic. Modern welding machines allow you to control the quality of welding, as well as to conduct testing of joints at tension. Advanced models are equipped with programs that allow you to optimize the welding process for a specific type of fiber.

FOA CFOT certified fiber optic technician course

FOA CFOT certified fiber optic technician course

Consultrónica offers this basic fiber optic course, developed by The FOA - The Fiber Optic Association in order to provide a basic training and certification program for all those who start in the world of fiber optics and want to acquire first knowledge of this new but growing technology

and it is also addressed to all people who already have knowledge of fiber optics and want to acquire a professional certification from the prestigious professional organization The FOA.
This course is a complete introduction to the world of fiber optics and at the same time serves as a basis and prerequisite for specialist courses at The FOA.

The CFOT course with a duration of two days transmits the theoretical foundations of the optical fiber and deepens in extensive practical workshops what has been learned in such a way that the participants really acquire the techniques and skills necessary to perform with ease in performing different preparation tasks of cables, splices, assembly of the different types of connectors, test, and verification with OTDR and design and realization of fiber optic communication networks.
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